- Clinical Study
- Open Access
Efficacy and Safety of Percutaneous Epiphysiodesis Operation around the Knee to Reduce Adult Height in Extremely Tall Adolescent Girls and Boys
https://doi.org/10.1155/2010/740629
© Emelie Benyi et al. 2010
- Received: 14 June 2010
- Accepted: 19 October 2010
- Published: 25 October 2010
Abstract
Objective. The aim was to determine efficacy and safety of a surgical method to reduce adult height in extremely tall adolescents. Methods. Data for all girls (
) and boys (
) in our center subjected to bilateral percutaneous epiphysiodesis around the knee who had reached final height were included. Final height predictions were based on hand and wrist X-rays before surgery. Results. When compared to prediction, adult height was reduced by
cm in treated girls (
) and
cm in treated boys (
) corresponding to a
% and
% reduction of remaining growth, respectively. Besides mild to moderate postoperative pain reported in 9 operated individuals, no other side effects were reported. Postoperative X-rays confirmed growth plate closure and absence of leg angulations. Conclusions. Bilateral epiphysiodesis is an effective and safe method to reduce adult height in extremely tall girls and boys.
Keywords
- Growth Plate
- Final Height
- Marfan Syndrome
- Adult Height
- Tall Stature
1. Introduction
In Sweden, a common definition of extreme tall stature is an adult height exceeding 200 cm for boys and 185 cm for girls corresponding to approximately 3 SD above the mean. Tall stature is most often caused by genetic factors (constitutional tall stature). However, an underlying disorder must always be considered in tall individuals as many of them need special medical attention. These include homocysteinuria, growth hormone excess, and various syndromes such as Klinefelter, Sotos, Marfan, and Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome [1, 2].
Extreme tall stature is a common reason for referral to pediatric endocrinology centers in northern European countries. Patients and their families often express a strong desire for intervention aiming to reduce adult height. The treatment options for children with extreme tall stature are limited. To reduce final height (FH), boys have been treated with high-dose testosterone and girls with high-dose estradiol [3, 4]. The treatment was introduced already in 1956, but its use has decreased dramatically in the last two decades, possibly due to a change in attitude towards tall stature and concerns of long-term complications [5]. In a meta-analysis study, hormonal treatment was only found to reduce final height if initiated before a bone age of around 14 yrs in both genders [6]. It was suggested that administration of sex steroids after this age causes extra growth instead of growth inhibition.
Undesired side effects are commonly reported in patients undergoing hormonal treatment for tall stature. For boys, one of the most common complaints reported is acne. Other documented side effects are weight gain, muscle ache, gynecomastia, hypertrichosis, behavioural changes, and aggressiveness [7, 8]. For girls, side effects include nausea, headache, elevated serum triglycerides, calf cramps, and weight gain [8–10]. More serious concerns with the treatment include a possible increased risk of venous thrombosis. Studies have shown changes in coagulation parameters [11] although no studies have been able to show an increased risk of venous thrombosis [12]. There is also a fear of a further increased risk of breast cancer [4, 9, 13] and decreased fertility [4]. One study from Australia shows that women who have been on high-dose oestrogen treatment to reduce their final height are more likely to have tried for over a year to get pregnant (relative risk 1.80, 95% CI 1.40–2.30) and to have taken fertility drugs (relative risk 2.05, 95% CI 1.34–3.04). They are also less likely to conceive in any given menstrual cycle although the possibility of conceiving at all is only slightly decreased, possibly due to the availability of fertility treatments. Because of the various side effects associated with hormonal treatment and sometimes limited efficacy, an alternative treatment modality is desired.
Surgical epiphysiodesis performed around the knee has for many years been used to treat leg length discrepancies [14]. In extremely tall boys, the use of bilateral percutaneous epiphysiodesis was recently reported to reduce adult height by approximately 5 cm when performed at a mean bone age of 13.9 years [15]. However, it is important to point out that still this is a controversial treatment as it is being performed in healthy adolescents and further supportive data are lacking.
The aim of our study was to determine the efficacy and safety of bilateral epiphysiodesis around the knee when performed to limit further growth in extremely tall adolescent girls and boys. We included radiological assessments of bone growth and bone angles and a reference group of untreated extremely tall subjects to document the efficacy and safety of bilateral percutaneous epiphysiodesis.
2. Subjects and Methods
2.1. Study Subjects


Inclusion criteria to be offered bilateral percutaneous epiphysiodesis.
(i) Final height prediction of at least 200 cm in boys and 185 cm in girls |
(ii) Remaining predicted growth of at least 8 cm |
(iii) Relatively long legs (relative sitting height below the mean) |
(iv) A strong patient desire to undergo the treatment |
At each occasion, height and sitting height were measured by an experienced professional using a Harpenden stadiometer. Bone age maturation was determined by two blinded experts on an X-ray film of the left hand and wrist using the atlas of Greulich and Pyle [16]. Final height predictions were made according to the Bailey and Pinneau tables [17]. To further verify the efficacy and safety of the treatment, hip-knee-ankle (HKA) angles and leg lengths (femur and tibia lengths) were measured digitally on plain X-ray films before surgery and at final height. Due to technical and practical problems, complete information for HKA-angle was only available in 15 patients and for leg length in 9 patients.
2.2. Validation of the Final Height Prediction Error in Untreated Tall Subjects
To validate the precision of our final height predictions, we recruited 17 untreated subjects (12 girls and 5 boys), all diagnosed with constitutional tall stature. They had been through a similar workup as the operated patients, including a hand X-ray but had never undergone treatment. At time of first visit, the mean age was
yrs in girls and
yrs in boys while the mean bone age was
yrs in girls and
yrs in boys. These reference subjects did not significantly differ from the study population (Table 3). The mean height at this initial workup was
cm in girls and
cm in boys. Based on evaluation of a hand and wrist X-ray film obtained, the final height predictions were
cm and
cm in girls and boys, respectively. When comparing predicted final height with achieved adult height, we found that girls were overpredicted by a mean of
cm and boys overpredicted by a mean of
cm.
In addition, we recruited another group of 12 young normal height adults (age 20–40 years; 11 females and 1 male) that were measured twice in a day with an eight-hour interval (at 8 am and 4 pm) with the aim to quantify the well-known reduction of height that normally occurs throughout the day. In these subjects, the mean loss in height over 8 hours was
cm. When validating the final height predictions, we compensated for the calculated hourly loss in height over the day (
cm/hour) to correct for any error caused by a difference in time between measurements performed in individual subjects. If making this correction, final height predictions in the tall untreated girls were equal to the achieved adult heights for girls (0.1 cm) while boys were still slightly overpredicted (0.5 cm). As the mean prediction error was so small, we decided not to correct for this when calculating the efficacy of the operation in the study population.
2.3. Surgical Technique
Growth arrest was achieved by bilateral percutaneous epiphysiodesis performed under general anaesthesia. A tourniquet was applied to reduce bleeding. The growth plates of the distal femur and proximal tibia and fibula were identified using an X-ray image intensifier (C-arm). Through one cm incisions at the lateral aspects of the femoral and tibial growth plates, epiphysiodesis was performed with a drill (8 mm) and oval angulated curettes (5–7 mm). The growth plate of the fibula was curetted with a 3 mm straight oval curette through the tibial incision from an anterior direction to avoid damage to the peroneal nerve. The curettage was controlled by short snapshots with the image intensifier. Between 25% and 50% of each growth plate was removed to induce the formation of bony bridges across the physis to ensure complete elimination of growth. Curetted bone tissue was removed from the subcutaneous tissue to avoid extraosseous bone formation. Local anaesthesia was injected adjacent to the skin incisions. The total operation time was approximately 45 minutes per leg.
In the here reported patients, postoperative analgesia was supported by continuous femoral nerve blockage for 24–48 hours. Additional postoperative analgesia was achieved by oral paracetamol and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. More recently, we have discontinued to apply femoral nerve blockage which has facilitated the postoperative mobilization with no increase in the reports of postoperative pain (data not shown).
To achieve full range of knee movement, physiotherapy and full weight bearing with crutches was initiated within 24 hours after surgery. Patients were discharged from the hospital when they were able to ambulate and bend their knees at least 90 degrees which typically occurred on the 2nd or 3rd day postoperatively. As a precaution, patients were advised to avoid strenuous physical activities for 4 weeks (no running or jumping).
2.4. Followup of Study Subjects
Twelve months postoperatively, total destruction of operated growth plates was confirmed on plain knee X-ray films. Total height, sitting height, and arm span were measured every 12 months after surgery until adult height was reached. Leg length was calculated as the difference between measured total height and sitting height. In addition, leg length was measured radiologically both preoperatively and when adult height had been reached. According to our definition, adult height was reached when the calculated growth velocity was less than 0.5 cm per year when assessed over a minimum of a 6-month interval. When adult height had been reached, each patient went through a work up which included clinical examination focusing on the efficacy and long-term safety of the treatment. In addition, plain digital X-ray films were taken of both legs to determine if any angulation (hip-knee-ankle angle) or leg length discrepancy had developed as a consequence of the previous operation.
2.5. Statistics
Results are reported as means ± SEM. Student's
-test was applied and when normality test failed Wilcoxon Signed Rank test was used to analyse treatment effects. The relationship between pairs of variables was assessed by Pearson's correlation.
-values of
were considered statistically significant.
3. Results
3.1. Baseline Characteristics of the Study Population




Clinical data for individual patients.
Patient no | CA at op | BA at op | Puberty at op | Height at op | FPH at op | FH | PFH-FH | Diagnosis |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Females | ||||||||
| 14.7 | 12.2 | B2 | 179.7 | 191.7 | 186.9 | 4.8 | CTS |
| 13.8 | 12.8 | B3 | 179.5 | 189.9 | 183.9 | 6.0 | CTS |
| 13.6 | 13.0 | B2 | 182.2 | 190.7 | 187.8 | 2.9 | CTS |
| 13.5 | 13.0 | B3 | 178.0 | 186.0 | 182.9 | 3.1 | CTS |
| 12.5 | 10.2 | B2 | 176.0 | 199.8 | 189.8 | 10.0 | CTS |
| 13.0 | 12.7 | B4 | 181,1 | 191.0 | 189.5 | 1.5 | CTS |
| 13.1 | 12.0 | B2 | 180.0 | 193.5 | 189.7 | 3.8 | CTS |
| 11.6 | 12.6 | B3 | 181.0 | 189.9 | 187.0 | 2.9 | CTS |
| 12.7 | 12.5 | B3 | 175.7 | 185.4 | 182.8 | 2.6 | Marfan |
| 13.4 | 12.6 | B2 | 177.3 | 190.2 | 184.9 | 5.3 | CTS |
| 11.8 | 11.5 | B2 | 173.6 | 188.7 | 183.5 | 5.2 | Marfan |
| 13.7 | 12.5 | B3 | 180.0 | 189.7 | 188.2 | 1.5 | CTS |
Males | ||||||||
| 16.5 | 14.3 | G5 | 192.4 | 205.1 | 201.2 | 3.9 | CTS |
| 15.2 | 14.0 | G3 | 183.1 | 196.0 | 191.7 | 4.3 | CTS |
| 14.2 | 14.5 | G4 | 188.4 | 198.6 | 198.3 | 0.3 | CTS |
| 14.7 | 12.9 | ND | 185.5 | 211.2 | 200.5 | 10.7 | CTS |
| 13.7 | 14.2 | G5 | 199.5 | 212.8 | 208.5 | 4.3 | CTS |
| 13.7 | 13.9 | G3 | 187.8 | 207.0 | 199.0 | 8.0 | CTS |
| 14.5 | 14.1 | G4 | 189.0 | 204.0 | 197.5 | 6.5 | CTS |
| 12.3 | 12.3 | G1 | 175.3 | 205.5 | 195.3 | 10.2 | Marfan |
| 12.2 | 13.8 | G5 | 187.9 | 209.6 | 200.2 | 9.4 | Klinfelter |
Clinical data for females and males.
CA at op (yrs) | BA at op (yrs) | Height at op (cm) | PFH at op (cm) | FH (cm) | PFH-FH (cm) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Females |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Males |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Predicted growth (Pred growth), increase in height (Inc Ht), increase in sitting height (inc SH), and increase in leg length (leg growth) from time of surgery.
3.2. Treatment Effect


















Distribution of patients based on height reductions versus predictions in girls and boys.
In boys, final adult height was reduced by 3.9–10.7 cm except for one single patient who had a reduction of only 0.3 cm. In this patient, the upper body growth after surgery was 9.0 cm while leg growth was only 0.9 cm. Except for one boy with Marfan syndrome (subject no. 20; Table 2), no patient showed a leg growth exceeding 1.2 cm after surgery. In this boy, leg growth was 3.3 cm while his upper body segment increased by 16.7 cm resulting in a 10.2 cm reduction of adult height compared to the initial prediction. An X-ray obtained 12 months after surgery clearly demonstrated that his distal tibia growth plates were still completely open while his operated proximal tibia and distal femur growth plates were, as expected, fused. When excluding patients with primary growth disorders (three with Marfan and one with Klinefelter syndrome), mean leg growth after surgery was only
cm and if analyzed separately
cm in girls and
cm in boys.




Reduction of predicted final height as a function of bone age at time of surgery. In both girls and boys, a negative correlation was found between bone age and reduction of predicted final height.
3.3. Effect on Body Proportions










Relative sitting height as a function of bone age in girls (a) and boys (b). For individual patients, the symbols illustrate the relative sitting height and bone age at time of surgery and at adult height. The hatched horizontal lines indicate the mean relative sitting heights for the normal population.
3.4. Safety
No serious side effects were reported in our study. One patient had a postoperative superficial cutaneous infection which did not require treatment with antibiotics. Nine patients reported postoperative pain from the site of surgery and received oral analgesics (2–14 days). No patient experienced pain after the first two postoperative weeks.
Leg length discrepancy did not change significantly between time of surgery until final height was achieved (
;
). The mean leg length difference before operation was
cm (range 0.0–0.9 cm) and at final height
cm (0.0–1.0 cm). To verify if any knee angulations developed after surgery, radiologic measurements of the Hip-Knee-Ankle (HKA) angle were performed before surgery and at final height. Between these two occasions, the HKA angle was increased in seven patients (0.5–5.0 degrees) while decreased in ten (0.5–5.0 degrees). In four of these patients, the HKA angle was increased in one leg while decreased in the other. None of them needed intervention or experienced physical problems related to the surgery.
4. Discussion
We here report that bilateral percutaneous epiphysiodesis performed around the knee effectively inhibits further leg growth when performed in extremely tall adolescent girls and boys. The operation was more effective when performed at an early bone age. We found the procedure to be safe and no significant side effects were reported.
We here document the efficacy and safety of epiphysiodesis in both girls and boys. Previously the only report of long-term outcome of this procedure has been in boys. The height reduction in our male patient group is in agreement with what was previously reported [15]. We have not only based our data on auxological measurements but also verified the efficacy and safety radiologically. To further strengthen the accuracy of the final height predictions, a validation cohort was recruited.
In both girls and boys, bilateral percutaneous epiphysiodesis reduced the predicted remaining growth from time of surgery by approximately one third. When reviewing studies of hormonal treatment, epiphysiodesis seems to be more efficient in reducing final height. In girls treated at a bone age of 12.5 yrs, the height reduction is around 2 cm with hormonal treatment and around 4 cm with epiphysiodesis [6]. In boys treated at a bone age of 14 yrs, epiphysiodesis results in a final height reduction by around 6 cm whereas hormonal treatment at this bone age results in no height reduction at all according to a meta-analysis [6]. Our results showed that epiphysiodesis was efficient in reducing final height in all patients except for one boy where we believe his predicted remaining growth was underestimated. This assumption is based on the fact that the growth of his upper body (9.0 cm) far exceeded his leg growth (0.9 cm) suggesting that the intervention was indeed effective also in this patient.
With regards to safety, we monitored for short-term side effects such as postoperative infections, pain, or discomfort as well as long-term side effects including any hip-knee-ankle angulations, leg length discrepancies, or abnormal body proportions. The only side effects reported were mild to moderate postoperative pain and one superficial cutaneous infection. Our findings are in agreement with a previous study of epiphysiodesis where no serious side effects were reported either [15]. Although no serious complications occurred, it should be noted that this is an invasive procedure in otherwise healthy individuals. Failure of epiphysiodesis secondary to insufficient ablation of the physis has indeed been reported by others [18]. Therefore, careful diagnostic preoperative evaluation is essential, and the treatment should be performed in a center of expertise ensuring the long-term followup. Regarding body proportions, relative sitting height at final height was indeed closer to the normal than before surgery when being compared to normative tables for the general population [19]. The reason for this is that tall stature is usually characterized by relatively long legs [20]. In most girls, the sitting height percentage remained below the mean at final height. In contrast, most boys had a sitting height percentage which was above the normative population, and in two of them this was more pronounced, most likely linked to the fact that their sitting heights were above the mean already at the time of surgery. At final height, none of the treated patients expressed dissatisfaction with their body proportions. However, an increase in relative sitting height is to be excpected and should be considered before treatment decision is made. We do not believe that the surgical treatment will lead to any long-term side effects in contrast to hormonal treatment for which fear has been raised of side effects such as reduced fertility [4] and breast cancer [11, 13]. Other side effects that have been associated with hormonal treatment, such as hypertension and thrombosis [11], were not seen in our operated patients. Therefore, we regard surgery as the treatment of choice in extremely tall patients with high blood pressure and/or a family history of venous thrombosis.
Final height predictions are known to be imprecise estimates of remaining growth. The most widely used method for prediction of final height was devised by Bayley and Pinneau (BP method). This method is routinely used in clinical practise [6]. At time of surgery, most of our patients were in midpuberty with a mean age of
yrs in girls and
yrs in boys. A previous study has shown that the mean height prediction errors (BP method) at these ages are
cm in girls (13 yrs) and
cm in boys (14 yrs) [6].
In order to reduce any prediction errors, all X-ray images were read by two blinded observers. In an attempt to quantify the potential errors of these predictions, we recruited an untreated reference population of extremely tall females and males. This validation clearly demonstrated that the predication errors were so small that we could ignore it when calculating the efficacy of the treatment. It is important to point out that the untreated reference group did not differ significantly from the treated group, although not being randomly selected. It would of course have been optimal to include a randomized untreated control group, but this was not possible for technical reasons. Nevertheless, the efficacy of the operation was confirmed by radiological leg measurements which is a very reliable method to assess bone growth.
5. Conclusions
Our data suggest that bilateral percutaneous epiphysiodesis is an efficient and safe method to reduce adult height in extremely tall adolescents. The intervention should not be performed too late, preferably at a bone age not exceeding twelve and a half years in girls and fourteen years in boys. We recommend that a treatment decision is taken before girls have reached a height of 170 cm and boys 185 cm. Hereby, the expected growth reduction will exceed 5 cm as long as the predicted final height is at least 185 cm in girls and 200 cm in boys. The patients should preferably have preoperative evaluation, treatment, and followup in a specialized center with expertise in pediatric endocrinology and pediatric orthopaedic surgery. Further studies are desired to document the efficacy and safety of this relatively new procedure in larger patient groups.
Declarations
Acknowledgments
This study was supported by the Swedish Research Council (no. K2010-54X-15073-07-3), Sällskapet Barnavård, Stiftelsen Frimurare Barnhuset i Stockholm, Stiftelsen Samariten, and HKH Kronprinsessan Lovisas förening för Barnasjukvård. The authors thank Professor Martin Ritzén for valuable advice and research nurse Lo Neumeyer for administrative support.
Authors’ Affiliations
References
- Simm PJ, Werther GA: Child and adolescent growth disorders–an overview. Australian Family Physician. 2005, 34 (9): 731-737.PubMedGoogle Scholar
- Verge CF, Mowat D: Overgrowth. Archives of Disease in Childhood. 2010, 95 (6): 458-463. 10.1136/adc.2009.157693.View ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
- Drop SLS, De Waal WJ, De Muinck Keizer-Schrama SMPF: Sex steroid treatment of constitutionally tall stature. Endocrine Reviews. 1998, 19 (5): 540-558. 10.1210/er.19.5.540.PubMedGoogle Scholar
- Venn A, Bruinsma F, Werther PG, Pyett P, Baird D, Jones P, Rayner J, Lumley PJ: Oestrogen treatment to reduce the adult height of tall girls: long-term effects on fertility. The Lancet. 2004, 364 (9444): 1513-1518. 10.1016/S0140-6736(04)17274-7.View ArticleGoogle Scholar
- Barnard ND, Scialli AR, Bobela S: The current use of estrogens for growth-suppressant therapy in adolescent girls. Journal of Pediatric and Adolescent Gynecology. 2002, 15 (1): 23-26. 10.1016/S1083-3188(01)00135-8.View ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
- de Waal WJ, Greyn-Fokker MH, Stijnen TH, Van Gurp EAFJ, Toolens AMP, De Muinck Keizer-Schrama SMPF, Aarsen RSR, Drop SLS: Accuracy of final height prediction and effect of growth-reductive therapy in 362 constitutionally tall children. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism. 1996, 81 (3): 1206-1216. 10.1210/jc.81.3.1206.PubMedGoogle Scholar
- de Waal WJ, Torn M, de Muinck Keizer-Schrama SMPF, Aarsen RSR, Drop SLS: Long term sequelae of sex steroid treatment in the management of constitutionally tall stature. Archives of Disease in Childhood. 1995, 73 (4): 311-315. 10.1136/adc.73.4.311.PubMed CentralView ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
- Binder G, Grauer ML, Wehner AV, Wehner F, Ranke MB: Outcome in tall stature. Final height psychological aspects in 220 patients with and without treatment. European Journal of Pediatrics. 1997, 156 (12): 905-910. 10.1007/s004310050740.View ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
- Radivojevic U, Thibaud E, Samara-Boustani D, Duflos C, Polak M: Effects of growth reduction therapy using high-dose 17β-estradiol in 26 constitutionally tall girls. Clinical Endocrinology. 2006, 64 (4): 423-428.PubMedGoogle Scholar
- Weimann E, Bergmann S, Böhles HJ: Oestrogen treatment of constitutional tall stature: a risk-benefit ratio. Archives of Disease in Childhood. 1998, 78 (2): 148-151. 10.1136/adc.78.2.148.PubMed CentralView ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
- Blomback M, Hall K, Ritzen EM: Estrogen treatment of tall girls: risk of thrombosis?. Pediatrics. 1983, 72 (3): 416-419.PubMedGoogle Scholar
- van Ommen CH, Fijnvandraat K, Vulsma T, Delemarre-Van De Waal HA, Peters M: Acquired protein S deficiency caused by estrogen treatment of tall stature. Journal of Pediatrics. 1999, 135 (4): 477-481. 10.1016/S0022-3476(99)70171-X.View ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
- Jordan HL, Hopper JL, Thomson RJ, Kavanagh AM, Gertig DM, Stone J, Venn AJ: Influence of high-dose estrogen exposure during adolescence on mammographic density for age in adulthood. Cancer Epidemiology Biomarkers and Prevention. 2010, 19 (1): 121-129. 10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-09-0434.View ArticleGoogle Scholar
- Canale ST, Russell TA, Holcomb RL: Percutaneous epiphysiodesis: experimental study and preliminary clinical results. Journal of Pediatric Orthopaedics. 1986, 6 (2): 150-156. 10.1097/01241398-198603000-00006.View ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
- Odink RJ, Gerver WJ, Heeg M, Rouwé CW, Bakker van Waarde WM, Sauer PJ: Reduction of excessive height in boys by bilateral percutaneous epiphysiodesis around the knee. European Journal of Pediatrics. 2006, 165 (1): 50-54. 10.1007/s00431-005-1722-z.View ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
- Pyle SI, Waterhouse AM, Greulich WW: Attributes of the radiographic standard of reference for the National Health Examination Survey. American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 1971, 35 (3): 331-337. 10.1002/ajpa.1330350306.View ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
- Bayley N, Pinneau SR: Tables for predicting adult height from skeletal age: revised for use with the greulich-pyle hand standards. The Journal of Pediatrics. 1952, 40 (4): 423-441. 10.1016/S0022-3476(52)80205-7.View ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
- Inan M, Chan G, Littleton AG, Kubiak P, Bowen JR: Efficacy and safety of percutaneous epiphysiodesis. Journal of Pediatric Orthopaedics. 2008, 28 (6): 648-651. 10.1097/BPO.0b013e3181832475.View ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
- Tanner JM, Whitehouse RH: Growth and Development Record: Sitting Height and Subischial Leg Length. 1978, Castlemead Publications, Hertfordshire, UKGoogle Scholar
- Brinkers JM, Lamore PJ, Gevers EF, Boersma B, Wit JM: The effect of oestrogen treatment on body proportions in constitutionally tall girls. European Journal of Pediatrics. 1994, 153 (4): 237-240. 10.1007/BF01954509.View ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
Copyright
This article is published under license to BioMed Central Ltd. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.